For the love of Latin

It’s all fascinating the world around us. But one of the biggest issues that often puts people off learning more about the outdoors and the wildlife is the terminology and in particular, the use of scientific names. But have you ever wondered what the Latin names of animals and plants actually mean and where they came from?

The naming system:

Every species has a scientific, binomial name given to it, which helps us to identify it, and it is the same no matter where you come from or what language you speak.

Each scientific name has two parts (hence the term binomial, meaning ‘two-names’) - the first is the Genus name and the second is the species name. So for example, human beings have the Latin name Homo sapien; Homo is the genus group in which we belong and means ‘human being’ or ‘man’ and sapien is our species and means ‘modern’ or ‘wise’.

Did you know? Carl von Linné was the father of the binomial classification system, which provides a scientific name for every living organism. To make his own name sound more like the organisms he was classifying, he began to sign his name as ‘Carolus Linnaeus’, the surname by which we now know him by.

So what do they mean?

Since every species has its own unique scientific name, I am not going to be able to cover them all. However, I can show you some of the easier, more common words that you come across to get you started. However, a key bit of knowledge you need is that most names are not just Latin; many are a mixture of Latin and Greek.

Scientific names are regularly given to a species based on a whole variety of factors, such as its colour, size, shape, its behaviour, the location or habitat in which it was found, or even named after the person who discovered it. By breaking down a scientific name into its various Latin or Greek parts, you can work out what it means.

Colours:

Latin	Greek	Meaning	Example
Albus / alba / album	Leuc-	White	Quercus alba (White oak)
Ruber / rubr- / rufus / ruf- / cardinalis	Erythro-	Red  / Scarlet	Erithacus rubecula (European Robin – red chest) Tringa erythropus (Spotted redshank)
Caeruleus / caerule-	Cyano / cyan-	Blue / Blue-green	Cyanistes caeruleus (Blue tit) Aganisia cyanea (Blue orchid)
Flavus / gilvus / luteus	Xanthos / crocos	Yellow  (Various shades)	Crocus sativus (Saffron crocus) Apodemus flavicollis (Yellow-necked mouse)
Niger / nigr- / Ater / atra / atrum	Melano- / Melan- / Mauro-	Black / dull black	Pinus nigra (Black pine) Fulica atra (Eurasian coot)
Viridis / Viride	Chloro-	Green / pale green	Labrus viridis (Green wrasse) Gallinula chloropus (Common moorhen)

Location:

Locations (often in Latin) are generally obvious and easy to work out, as the countries / continents / areas of the world where they are found are normally included in the name (e.g. Erinaceus europaeus - European hedgehog, and Ursus americanus - American black bear). Generic areas might include ‘australlis’ which means ‘southern’, ‘borealis’ which means ‘northern’. If something has ‘vagans’ in its name, it means ‘widely disributed’. More specific habitat locations may also form part of the name, as in the table below.

Latin (L) / Greek (G)	Meaning (of the…)	Example
Arvensis / agrestis / campestris (L)	Field / open plain	Alauda arvensis (Skylark)
Ammophilus / arenarius (L)	Sandy places	Leymus arenarius (Sand ryegrass)
Domesticus / familiaris (L)	House / domesticated	Passer domesticus (House Sparrow)
Aquaticus (L) / Hydro- (G)	Water (freshwater)	Mentha aquatica (Water mint)
Hali- / Halio- (G), Maritima (L), pelagicus (L,G)	Sea (saltwater)	Halichoerus grypus (Grey seal) Ursus maritimus (Polar bear)
Hortensis (L)	Garden	Anemone hortensis (Broad-leaved anemone)
Monantus / alpicola (L)	Mountains	Passer montanus (Tree Sparrow)
Sylvaticus / sylvestris / nemoralis (L)	Woodland / forest	Anemone nemorosa (Wood anemone) Apodemus sylvaticus (Wood mouse)

Defining characteristics and features:

Most species are named due to a defining characteristic or features that makes it unique and different to other and similar species. This might be its shape, size, calls / songs, or particular body parts that vary, just to name a few. Below are just a few examples:

Latin (L) / Greek (G)	Meaning	Example
Major / magnus / maximus / grandis (L) Macro- / mega- (G)	Large / largest / long / great / greater / big	Parus major (Great tit)
Minor / minimus / minuta / parvus (L) / Micro (G)	Small / smaller / smallest / lesser / dwarf	Micromys minutus (Harvest mouse)
Trivialis / Vulgaris (L)	Common / ordinary	Sturnus vulgaris (Starling)
Punctatus / macuatus (L)	Spotted	Coccinella septempunctata (Seven-spot ladybird)
Platy- (G)	Broad / wide and flat	Anas platyrhyncos (Malllard) (rhyncos is ‘beak or snout’ in Greek)
Ped- / -pes (L) / Pod- (G)	Foot / footed	Eleocharis erythropoda (Red-footed spikesedge)
Volans (L)	Flying	Draco Volans (Flying dragon)

Uses / properties:

Latin (L) / Greek (G)	Meaning	Example
Edulis / esculentus (L)	Edible (although always double check before eating)	Ostrea edulis (Oyster)
Fragrans / aromaticus (L)	Fragrant / aromatic	Syzygium aromaticum (Clove)
Melliferus (L)	Produces honey	Apis mellifera (Western honey bee)
Virosus (L)	Toxic / poisonous	Cicuta virosa (Cowbane)
Officinalis (L)	For the workshop / shop, useful (vegetable, culinary, medicinal)	Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary) Borago officinalis (Borage)
Tinctorius (L)	Used as a dye	Genista tinctoria (Dyer’s Greenwood)
Medicus (L)	Medicinal	Citrus medica (Citron fruit)

Time:

Annuus (L)	Annual (single year)		Aestivualis (L)	Relating to Summer
Biennis (L)	Biennial (two-years)		Autumnalis (L)	Relating to Autumn
Perennis (L)	Perennial (many years)		Vernalis / vernum / veris (L)	Relating to Spring
Nocturnus (L)	Of the night / nocturnal
Praecox (L)	Early		Hyemalis / Hiemalis (L)	Relating to Winter
Tardus (L)	Late

People’s names:

The surnames of famous people, or the explorers who discovered a species can often be found in the scientific name. For example, ‘darwinii’ shows that a species was named after Charles Darwin. A recent example was in 2007, when a new tree species (Blakea attenboroughii) was discovered and named after David Attenborough.

Greek / Latin numbers are often used in names which also gives clues to a species’ characteristics, for example, the number of petals or leaves, how many spots or legs it has, etc.

1	Mono- (G)	3	Tri- (G)	5	Penta- (G)	7	Septum- (L)	9	Ennea- (G) Novum (L)
2	Di- (G) Bi- /Duo- (L)	4	Quadri- (L) Tetra- (G)	6	Hexa- (G)	8	Octo- (G)	10	Deca- (G) Decem- (L)

So I have shown you just a few examples of how Latin and Greek terms can be used to put a scientific name together. If you therefore ever get stuck, try breaking the name into smaller chunks and work out each individual meaning. Then piece them back together and you may be able to match the scientific name to the common name. For example, ‘Trifolium repens’ describes a plant – ‘tri’ is three, ‘folium’ is leafed, and ‘repens’ is creeping. Therefore put together, this forms ‘three-leafed creeping’, which describes white clover. Diceros bicornis is divided into ‘di‘ means two and ‘ceros’ is horn in Greek, and ‘bi’ is two and ‘cornis’ is horn in Latin. Therefore, this animal is literally translated as ‘two-horns, two-horns’ and is the black rhino.

Having now seen how names are classified and the meanings behind them, what would your binomial name be?

For further information and help here are some books and websites I recommend:

Armitage, J. and the RHS (2016) RHS Practical Latin for Gardeners: More than 1,500 Essential Plant Names and the Secrets They Contain.

Lederer, J. and Burr, C. (2014) Latin for Bird Lovers: Over 3,000 bird names explored and explained.

Wright, John (2015) The Naming of the Shrew: A Curious History of Latin Names.

https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/info/latin-plant-names.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin_and_Greek_words_commonly_used_in_systematic_names

Me with a Brown Hawker dragonfly (Aeshna grandis)

By Vicky Brown, Tutor

Our boots were made for walking...

“Walk away quietly in any direction and taste the freedom of the mountaineer. Camp out among the grasses and gentians of glacial meadows, in craggy garden nooks full of nature's darlings. Climb the mountains and get their good tidings, Nature's peace will flow into you as sunshine flows into trees. The winds will blow their own freshness into you and the storms their energy, while cares will drop off like autumn leaves. As age comes on, one source of enjoyment after another is closed, but nature's sources never fail” – John Muir (Wood, 2019).

Cleaning boots after the latest adventure (CT).

Many Field Studies Council staff members enjoy going for a walk, whether it be in their local area or further afield, often citing reasons of exercise, enjoyment or to explore new areas for partaking in this type of recreation. The FSC Preston Montford team are no exception to this.

May was National Walking Month and so we decided to discover some of our staffs' favourite walking locations to share with you:

Liz (Office Team)

Favourite Shropshire walk – Mortimer Forest, Ludlow because I use to go there as a child.

Favourite UK walking site – The Lake District because it’s so beautiful and pure escapism.

Looking towards Blencathra from Castlerigg Stone Circle (CT).

Derwent Water Lake (CT).

Jon (Education Team)

Favourite teaching site walk – Cwm Idwal or work site [Preston Montford Estate], because they are awesome sites.

Favourite UK walking site– The Cullins on the Isle of Skye. I’ve only been once but again an awesome location.

Linda (Hospitality Team)

Favourite Shropshire walk – Nesscliffe Hill. Kynaston Cave use to be open when I was a kid and it was great fun playing hide and seek around the hill.

Favourite food to take with you on a walk – Sandwiches, crisps and biscuits.

Views from Nesscliffe over the rolling Shropshire landscape (CT).

Humphrey Kynaston's old hide out (CT).

Vicky (Education Team)

Favourite teaching site walk – It’s between the Stiperstones (for the view) or Blists Hill (good fun).

Favourite UK walking site - Not really been to many places around UK for walking but the Peak District is lovely. It has amazing views and is Elizabeth Bennet’s landscape.

The Stiperstones NNR (CT).

Mark (Associate Tutor)

Favourite teaching site walk – Llanymynech because there is good flora and fauna, industrial history and views.

Favourite UK walking site – Beechfield Dingle, Worthen, or Benthall Edge woodland.

Phil (Education Team)

Favourite teaching site walk – Cwm Idwal. It’s a dramatic location and the lake is very nice.

Favourite UK walking site – Probably Ennerdale. It’s in the Western Lake District and is mostly wooded, and the work that Wild Ennerdale do there to rewild the valley is great – removing boundaries and allowing the river to be free-willed. They also have Galloway cattle roaming free, so it’s fantastic when you stumble upon larger herbivores just roaming around! It’s also away from the tourist hubs of Windermere and Keswick.

Cwm Idwal - a dramatic glacial landscape in winter (CT).

Jenni (Growing Confidence Project Officer)

Favourite UK walking site – Northumberland Coast or Scottish Islands for the feeling of remoteness and wilderness. West-Coast woodland for feeling of connection to nature.

Favourite item to take on a walk with you – Rosie, the dog, because she is a good excuse to go for a walk.

Rosie (CT)

Charlotte (Education Team)

Favourite teaching site walk– The Stiperstones because the landscape is so dramatic and I love it when the Whimberries (Billberries) come out. I also enjoy the folklore that surrounds this site.

Favourite UK walking site – Anywhere with a coast path! Particularly Pembrokeshire or Dorset. I just love exploring hidden beaches with their amazing rockpools and admiring stacks/arches that have stood for hundreds of years.

Rockpool find - Strawberry Anemone (CT).

Durdle Door and Man O'War Cove (CT).

Angela (Hospitality Team)

Favourite Shropshire walk – Going along the canals because it’s flat and I don’t have to go over stiles – my knees play up a bit now. Plus, it’s very peaceful.

Favourite post walk treat – Lemon drizzle cake or fruit scone!

Ian (Estate Maintenance Team/Associate Tutor)

Favourite teaching site walk – Venus Bank sand quarry because it’s fab for my favourite buddies [Bees and Wasps].

Favourite item to take on a walk with you – Hand lens.

Where have you been walking this month? Does your favourite walk match with any of ours? Where will your next walk be? Why not have a look at the FSC’s General Natural History and Walking Courses, https://www.field-studies-council.org/individuals-and-families/natural-history/exploring-the-natural-world/general-natural-history-and-walking.aspx, to see if you can find your next trail adventure.

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Sources

Wood, H. (2019). Quotations of John Muir - Writings - The John Muir Exhibit - Sierra Club. [online] Vault.sierraclub.org. Available at: https://vault.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/writings/favorite_quotations.aspx [Accessed 31 May 2019].

Photo credits

CT = Charlotte Timerick

Frogs vs Toads: What is the difference?

If you’ve been anywhere near fresh water in the past few weeks, chances are you’ve come across a frog or two. Here at Preston Montford they’ve been popping up everywhere as they wake from hibernation and begin their quest to raise the next generation. As I rescued one unfortunate toad that had tumbled down a drain outside Caradoc classroom, I couldn’t help but wonder…what actually is a toad? Is it just a frog with an ugly complexion? How can I be a biology undergraduate and not even know the difference between a frog and a toad?

The answer is, like many things in biology (and life), it’s complicated. Frogs and toads are both amphibians, a class of vertebrates that usually spend their larval stage in water before metamorphosing into their air-breathing adult forms. If this isn’t crazy enough, amphibians are also the owners of some of nature’s most exciting skin, which can act as a secondary respiratory surface and may secrete predator-deterring toxins. The golden poison frog is the most poisonous vertebrate in the world, containing enough venom to kill 10 adult men!

Phyllobates terribilis, the aptly named golden poison frog. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Schrecklicherpfeilgiftfrosch-01.jpg/786px-Schrecklicherpfeilgiftfrosch-01.jpg

Within the amphibians, the order Anura, literally translating to “without tail” in Ancient Greek, includes both frogs and toads. This distinguishes them from “tailed” amphibians such as newts and salamanders, but this is about as far as taxonomy takes us. There is a family of “true toads”, (Bufonidae), within this order which are grouped together based on DNA and skeletal characteristics, like their lack of teeth. However, there are several “true toads” that have an appearance more similar to frogs, and many frog species outside this group that most people would distinguish as toads. In short, it’s a massive grey area and you’d be forgiven for just collectively labelling them as frogs, (which would technically be correct).

So is that it? Are toads just frogs with wrinkly skin? Well, yes, and no. Despite the many similarities between them, there are several characteristics that are generally recognised as more frog-like or more toad-like. Frogs tend to have longer legs for jumping between ponds, whereas toads have shorter legs for walking and hopping on land. Toad spawn is also distinguishable from frog spawn in that the eggs tend to be laid in long chains rather than clusters. Some toads such as Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis don’t even lay eggs at all, but actually give birth to little, fully formed toadlets, skipping the tadpole stage entirely. As I mentioned earlier, true toads also do not have any teeth…which means yes, most frogs do. They’re pretty small though, and are used for gripping onto their prey, not gnawing on human fingers.

Long ribbons of toad spawn.
Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/aGwAgLHY-78/maxresdefault.jpg

Of course, it’s impossible to talk about any wild animal these days, without mentioning how they’re suffering at the hands of humans. Frogs and toads make up around 90% of the world’s amphibian species, almost half of which are now in danger of extinction. Habitat loss, climate change and pollution, as well as the threat of the parasitic fungus known as amphibian chyrrid means it’s not a great time to be a frog, and quick action is needed if we are to save these iconic animals. If you have the space in your garden you may want to consider building a pond. Make sure it has plenty of vegetation and shallow sides to help the frogs hop in and out. I’ve seen at Preston Montford that even the smallest ponds can support a wealth of amphibian life, so building one really does make a difference! Of course we aren’t all able to build ponds in our gardens, but we all have the power to make an impact, whether that’s by reducing our carbon footprint or by occasionally rescuing toads from unfortunate places.

If you want to learn more about frogs and other amphibians, why not check out our courses at https://www.field-studies-council.org/individuals-and-families/natural-history/animals/reptiles-and-amphibians.aspx?

By Hannah Lawson (Education Assistant).

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimbaphrynoides

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Frog_vs_Toad

http://mentalfloss.com/article/61808/whats-difference-between-frogs-and-toads

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2008/jan/09/conservation.endangeredspecies